Wildfires are caused by natural occurrences such as lightning or human activities. Wildfires (wildland fires) occur when there is sufficient oxygen, a fuel source, and a heat temperature to support a flame. Once flaming occurs, the fire develops from a small size to consuming hundreds and thousands of acres. As flaming temperatures increase there is less humidity, resulting in thermal pressures to move away from the fire towards additional fuel sources. The direction or movement of wildfire flames are also affected by wind (updrafts, downdrafts, straight-line wind), as well as at lower and higher elevations.

Wildfires not only consume trees and brush, but they also consume organic matter in soil, power lines, transformers, homes and structures, cars and trucks, and melt asphalt roadways. Byproducts released by burnt and melted materials can be toxic to breathe and hazardous to touch.

The wildfire’s temperature, humidity, and wind are the main driving forces that cause smoke to enter a home. Smoke contains particulates (e.g., large small, and micro-fine biological particles such as char, ash, vegetative materials, clay and silica), asbestos (e.g., amosite, chrysotile, crocidolite) from burning buildings, and heavy metals such as acetone, acetaldehyde, acrolein, anthracene, arsenic, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, catechol, cresols, dioxins, furans, formaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide (HCN), mercury, methane, naphthalene, nitrogen oxide, phenols, sulfur dioxide, and toluene. Depending on fires burning neighboring buildings, other heavy metals may be found indoors such as aluminum, antimony, barium, beryllium, chromium (hexavalent chromium e.g., Cr(VI)), copper, lead, magnesium, organochlorine pesticides, organophosphate esters, polyfluorinated substances, potassium arsenate, tin, titanium, and zinc. Some of these compounds are in tars and resins of wildfire residues that stick to interior surfaces. Wildfire smoke is the carrier of compounds, where they can enter homes through airspaces such as doors, windows, attic vents and soffits, bathroom and kitchen vents, HVAC systems, fireplace flues, and building cracks.

The thickness of wildfire smoke film is microscopic, where the color of the film may be seen as black, brown, or grey, or clear of color. Some wildfire smoke compounds can be detected through the sense of smell, however, in other cases, the identification of smoke compounds requires surface and air sampling along with laboratory analysis. Even if you cannot smell smoke, the particulates making up wildfire debris can be present as wildfire-produced particles, and a layer of smoke affecting the structure, finishes, and contents.

The porosity of building materials and finishes are either non-porous, semi-porous or highly porous. Examples of non-porous include metal, glass, and glazed ceramic tiles, for examples of semi-porous materials include wood framing, drywall, plaster, particleboard, stone and concrete, whereas highly porous materials include insulation (e.g., fiberglass, cellulosic, mineral wool). Materials that are non-porous, semi-porous and highly porous can retain smoke residue as a coating or a film that is left on them after the wildfire, where semi-porous and porous materials can have smoke residue to be driven into pores.

The same applies to contents, because they are classified as either non-porous, semi-porous, or highly porous, or they can be a combination of materials having different porosity such as a chair that is made of metal, but the seat cushion is fabric with foam backing. Generally, the more porous a building material or content is, the greater degree smoke is able to penetrate them. Ventilation ducting and HVAC systems can be a combination of non-porous galvanized metal, semi-porous ducting, and porous insulation and filters.

The odors inside a wildfire impacted building will change over time. For example, after the wildfire, when outdoor air no longer has smoke in it, indoor smoke odors become more apparent, especially when doors and windows are closed. Opening doors and windows lets in outside air and dilutes the indoor smoke-ladened air. In addition, once the house is cleaned and ventilation filters are replaced, smoke odors are expected to be less. However, lingering smoke odors may remain present at different times of the day and night as temperature, humidity, and vapor pressures change. Some people may experience a reaction or a cumulative health effect to particulates, tars, resins, heavy metals, and associated PAHs and VOCs, resulting in respiratory infection and weakened immune system, that may cause headaches, nausea, coughing, and wheezing, throat and eye irritation, itchy skin, rashes, and dermatitis.

Homeowners completing the cleanup of landscape should be in good health where they do not have respiratory issues or immune system disorders. Homeowners and others helping with the cleanup are expected to wear a respirator (e.g., a NIOSH approved N-95 mask), protective outer clothing, work gloves, and eye protection. Contact with ash and particulate matter can result in respiratory disorders, eye infections, and skin rashes.

Before beginning cleanup, an inspection of the property (landscape, building) should be completed that involves identifying downed electrical poles and wires, burnt electrical wiring, gas, and water lines, trees and large plants that experienced wind damage or burning and lose roofing tiles that can kill or hurt someone. Propane tanks and vehicles that are burnt or heat impacted can explode. If the homeowner is capable in correcting these issues, so much the better. If not, the homeowner is expected to hire qualified and competent persons. When it comes to downed power lines and damaged electrical wiring, along with propane tanks, the homeowner should contact the power company, the propane supplier, and state licensed professionals.

A more recent phenomenon is electric battery-powered vehicles (EV), lawnmowers, bicycles, skateboards, and power tools which may appear to be in good condition but their exposure to heat (e.g., 392 to 482 F / 200 to 250 C) can cause the electrolytes in batteries to break down, whereas temperatures above this range can result in thermal runaway, ultimately causing an explosion. The phenomenon of thermal runaway of batteries can occur days, weeks, and longer after they have had exposure to wildfire heat. For vehicles, only professionals should inspect and test EVs using accelerated rate calorimetry (ARC), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), or battery management system (BMS) that continually monitors the voltage, current, temperature, and the state of charge. For battery-operated lawnmowers, bicycles, skateboards, power tools, security systems, and other equipment, before using them, consult with the manufacturer.

Generally, a disaster staging area will be setup in a local shopping center or school, where state and local government agencies, utilities, the Federal Disaster Management Agency (FEMA), the American Red Cross (ARC), medical assistance, and various insurance companies having semi-trucks, trailers, and tents, along with individuals will provide assistance.

• What helps government agencies, insurers, and non-profit associations is for you to supply them with proper identification that you reside at your address, and you are the homeowner. In addition, when necessary, take photos of the property that identifies each issue you have. 
• State and local government agencies often have trailers or tents for you to meet and speak with your local representatives. Become aware of how your rural community, city, county, and state representatives are informing homeowners on what they should or should not do.
• Often, local governments will sponsor community meetings, where you can ask questions and listen to the question and answers of your neighbors. 
• When speaking with your insurance company, they may ask you to first file a claim on your phone by calling their 800 phone number. 
• The ARC is present to provide local community services including food, shelter, clothing, and handholding. 
• A medical trailer or tent may be present to assist with burns, cuts, respiratory, and psychological issues. 
• The fire department, state and local police may be able to provide you with access permits authorizing you to pass through roadside barriers. 
• Depending on the capabilities of the fire department and utilities, they may be able to assist removing dangerous branches and trees that can cause death and serious injury.   
• If you do not have electricity, utilities should be able to show you on maps about where they are at in establishing power lines and power back to your property.   
• Pets have special needs, where veterinary services and sheltering may be available. 
• In addition, restoration contractors may have trailers for homeowners to visit, where their goal is to consult with you on your needs and, when practical, contracting them to protect your property from experiencing further damage along with providing smoke contamination restoration.

Governing agencies and utilities that oversee your community’s disaster management cleanup program should be contacted to inspect your property and that of your neighbors when they are burnt. Not having their information and guidance can complicate your cleanup efforts such as getting demolition and repair permits.

When your neighbor’s home burns to the ground, the materials that constructed it can be found in your home as charred remnants and toxic residues. Depending on the number of burnt buildings, government agencies generally contract with specialists and hazardous waste contractors to complete environmental assessments, identify and remove explosive containers from burnt properties, and lock-down hazardous waste and ground until they can be removed. The time it takes for these services to be concluded are often based on a block-by-block schedule, which can require weeks and sometimes months to complete.

When your home is heat damaged, such as from a roof fire, patio deck fire, or part of the side of the house caught on fire, there may be structural issues that must be corrected by a licensed contractor. In some cases, building stabilization and temporary repairs can be completed without having a permit, whereas in more severe cases, a contractor and a structural engineering report with plans must be approved before the city, county, or jurisdiction issues permits.

It must be mentioned, once a wildfire is declared by government officials as a “disaster,” cleanup and restoration must meet certain criteria, for example, hiring unlicensed professionals such as handymen, tree trimmers, contractors, structure and contents cleaning and deodorization companies may be a violation of state law. Even when the contractor is licensed, but come from another state, where they cannot prove that they have your state contractor’s license, they could be in violation of state laws, resulting in a felony for them to solicit or sign an agreement with you, even when they are paid by your insurance company.

If you decide to hire them and their work is unsatisfactory, your recourse in filing a claim against them may be limited. Therefore, hire only state licensed contractors, check their license with your state contractor’s licensing board, make sure they are bonded and carry insurance that is over $1M, and check references.

Remediation in this context is the services required leading up to and including the permanent repair of the structure. Remediation should be completed as quickly as practical, based on the assessment of property damage that protects the property (structure and contents) from experiencing further damage. Additional damage may occur, such as when there are changes in weather, wind that is driving ash off of hillsides back into the house, or building stabilization is required.

Restoration in this context is all the services required leading up to and including the permanent cleaning and deodorization of the interior, contents, and HVAC system. Before removing and neutralizing smoke from inside the home, all wildfire-related issues, such unsafe outdoor conditions, downed trees and limbs, and piles of char, ash, and vegetative debris should be removed. Further, driveways, walkways, decks, and the sides of the house need to be cleaned before the inside is cleaned.

When outdoor environmental conditions (e.g., weather, wind, smoke, ash) are capable of reentering the home, they can continue to damage and contaminate the interior even though the interior may have been cleaned and deodorized, including contents. The common sources of re-entrainment (smoke and ash reentering the home), include opened doors and windows, persons tracking in contaminates on shoes, boots and clothing, HVAC systems, eaves, soffits, and attic vents, bathroom and kitchen vents, and open fireplace flues. When outdoor wind continues to carry char, ash, and other particulate matter throughout the community, the interior may require numerous cleanings. Note, if the homeowner has insurance that covers wildfire cleaning and deodorization, the insurer will only pay to clean and deodorize the house once.

For the homeowner, a general initial content cleaning is the cleaning of all surfaces. This should be more easily accomplished for wash and wear clothing, linens, and bedding that can be laundered, kitchen and other household items that can be placed in a dishwasher or immersed in a sink. It becomes more difficult to achieve when draperies and other items require dry-cleaning, and it becomes increasingly more difficult when carpet, rugs, and upholstered furniture and bed mattresses require cleaning and deodorization.

Depending on what burnt and the degree of heavy to light smoke entrainment, they can affect the success of cleaning and deodorizing semi-porous and highly-porous contents. In addition, the electronics in kitchen appliances, clothes washers and dryers, stereo systems, security systems, computers, and TVs, can be air-washed with dry air to remove lose ash and other particulate that can contribute to corrosion. Additional restoration services such as smoke washing contents in an ultrasonic tank requires professional intervention.

Items that are antiques, musical instruments or artwork may be able to be surface cleaned of lose wildfire particles using cotton wipes or a dry clean cloth. However, because they can be damaged by caustic smoke further cleaning methods should be specific for each item, which requires them to have a customized professional cleaning process.

There are two associations for certifying professionals trained and experienced in fire damage restoration. They include the International Institute of Cleaning Restoration Certification (IICRC) and the Restoration Industry Association (RIA).

Some of the methods and procedures used in fire damage restoration apply to wildfire damaged structure. However, there are substantial differences between building fire damaged remediation methods and wildfire cleanup restoration methods, this is is why the IICRC is developing the ANSI/IICRC S760 “Standard for Professional Wildfire Investigations and Restoration of Impacts to Structures, Systems, and Contents.” The release date of the standard is expected to be the fall or winter of 2024.

• Homeowners hiring industry professionals (restorers) cost considerably more than what a homeowner can do for themselves, but the cost is often worth it when the restorer has a critical eye for detail. 
• The homeowner should be aware of restorers that “overstate” their capabilities, training, and certifications of project managers and workers:
  • Out of all the restorers in the country, only a handful have active certifications in fire damage restoration and fewer have training and experience in mitigating wildfire damage and providing deodorization. 
  • Very few project managers have active certification by IICRC, RIA, and other associations in fire damage restoration. 
  • Most restorers have less than ten employees, where they can only provide quality work in two to three wildfire damaged homes at a time.  

• • Competently trained and experienced supervision is often lacking because some of the general work staff of the restorer are fast-tracked to become supervisors overseeing a part-time labor force.
  • While it is common practice to hire a labor force that supplies a number of persons to adequately clean and deodorize wildfire contaminated buildings and contents, few part-time and labor force workers receive any form of fire damage restoration training.

• The agreement between the restorer and homeowner is a one-time commitment of the restorer to complete cleanup. 

• • The homeowner is often unaware as to the work being completed, the success of the cleaning and deodorization process, and what was not completed if they knew what to look for. 
  • Sometimes, the agreement of the contract is limited to “dry vacuum cleaning and damp wiping horizontal surfaces,” and maybe a couple days of “ozone deodorization,” where actually, a complete detailed cleaning (detergent smoke washing) is necessary, along with removal and replacement of crawlspace and attic insulation, along with ventilation system cleaning and deodorization, which may require contents to be manipulated or packed out. 

• The date of the agreement.
• The name of the restorer and address, the representative’s name, tile, personal phone and email. 
• Get the restorers’ state contractor’s license and a copy of their liability insurance.
• Carefully read the “Terms and Conditions,” and address your concerns to the representative, make sure they explain them to your satisfaction what it means.
  • Recognize, the Terms and Conditions of the restorer’s contract is for their protection under the law and not necessarily yours.  
• What date will structure and contents cleaning and deodorization work “begin,” and what is the estimated date work is expected to be “completed.” 
• Recognizing some wildfire cleanup claims are covered by insurance, make sure the restorer, you, and adjuster have the same cleanup and deodorization goals in mind, and the estimated cost in completing work will be authorized, approved, and paid by the adjuster. 
  • Through communication with your adjuster, insist that your name is placed on all insurance drafts, where you maintain control of signing the draft over to the restorer. 
  • Use the restorer’s estimate of services and costs, it allows you to check their work “line-by-line,” making sure they were completed to your satisfaction.  

• Documentation: 
• All wildfire heat damaged, and smoke contaminated homes are expected to be documented through photos, videos, or 3D tours, and the homeowner should always take their own set of photos for their records.  
• Generally, the restorer will complete documentation before beginning work, which identifies heat and smoke impaction, and the location and condition of contents; they then complete a second set of documentation as each phase of work is completed; and sometimes a third documentation showing the completed work.    
• Privacy Rights –
• While documenting the wildfire was approved by the homeowner, however, they have not given up their rights of privacy, where it must be understood by the restorer and adjuster that information describing their home and contents, including valuables and family members in paintings and photos shall remain confidential, where photos, videos, and 3D tours belong to the homeowner. 
• Even though the homeowner was not the photographer, the homeowner has the right to control sharing photos of the exterior and interior with others, including insurers and third-parties. In cases where the restorer does not take clear and detailed photos, the homeowners’ photos than become invaluable, when conflicts arise over what work was done or was not accomplished on a particular date.    

Exterior Concerns:

Is the restorer responsible for removing wildfire debris from the exterior.

Is the restorer cleaning (e.g., detergent pressure washing) the roof, decks, walkways, driveways, patios, pools, Jacuzzi, and out-buildings.

Is hand washing required in cleaning window screens, windows, doors, and casements.

Is the restorer responsible for identify heat damage (e.g., discoloration, blistering,) or corrosion affecting roofing, decks, pools, siding, windows, doors, lawn furniture.

Interior Concerns, such as what are the processes involved in structure, contents cleaning, and deodorization:

Options for Attic and Crawlspace Framing, Insulation, and HVAC:

Do nothing in the attic or crawlspace. 

Remove attic and crawlspace insulation.

Smoke wash clean and deodorize raw wood framing in attics and crawlspace. 

Remove attic and crawlspace insulation followed by HEPA vacuuming, detergent, smoke washing, and oxidizing smoke odors.

Clean and deodorize ventilation ducting and the mechanical system following NADCA Standard ACR 2021.

Remove and replace either or both ventilation ducting or mechanical system. 

Options for the Interior Structure:

HEPA vacuum clean horizontal surfaces and window casements only.

HEPA vacuum ceilings, walls, windows, blinds, and floors.

HEPA vacuum and detergent smoke wash ceilings, walls, windows, blinds, and hard surface floors.

Surface HEPA vacuum cabinet countertops and the face of drawers and shelving. 

Surface HEPA vacuum cabinet countertops, remove contents, and the interior of drawers and shelving. 

Surface HEPA vacuum and detergent smoke wash clean cabinet countertops and face of drawers and shelving.

Surface HEPA vacuum and detergent smoke wash clean cabinet countertops, remove contents and clean the interior of drawers and shelving. 

Determine if carpet and pad can be cleaned and deodorized with the house or should they be removed.

Is it necessary to remove chandeliers, ceiling light fixtures, and wall sconces. 

Paint paintable ceilings, walls, trim, and casements.

Refinish or polish hard surface flooring.  

Options for Deodorization:

Remove attic and crawlspace insulation followed by HEPA vacuuming, detergent, smoke washing, and oxidizing smoke odors.

Remove attic and crawlspace insulation followed by HEPA vacuuming, detergent, smoke washing, oxidizing smoke odors and applying an appropriate fire/smoke sealant.

Provide deodorization throughout the house in carpet and pad, furniture, the attic and crawlspace.

Will contents remain in the house during deodorization.  

Contents such as upholstered furniture and bed mattresses must be removed and placed in a temperature and humidity controlled environment for pressurized deodorization. 

Options for Contents Handling and Total Loss Inventory:

Create a separate list of “total loss contents” and salvageable (cleanable, restorable) contents.

When the homeowner has to move to a temporary location, identify “immediate need Items” (e.g., checkbooks, computers, clothing, personal records, clothing) and have them cleaned and deodorized as one of the first jobsite priorities.

Are the remaining contents being cleaned by the restorer, customer, or are they being subcontracted to another professional.

Because of the delicacy of some items, such as family photos, collectibles, insurance and legal documents, and will the homeowner be taking possession of them.  

Outside lawn furniture and contents are heat damaged or burnt, such as…

The following items are not cost effective to clean and deodorize, such as…

The following items cannot be cleaned and deodorized because of exposure to lead paint, asbestos, and other toxic substances, such as…  

Children’s toys, games, and other items are to be put on the total loss list, such as…

Upholstered furniture and bed mattresses are to be disposed, such as… 

Contents Cleaning:

Will clothing, linens, draperies and other soft goods be cleaned using the homeowner’s washer and dryer, along with handwashing kitchenware, to polishing shoes, boots, and other items on-site.

Will clothing, linens, draperies and other soft goods be removed and cleaned at a professional cleaning service, along with shoes, boots, and other items.

Will draperies be removed for professional wet cleaning or dry cleaning.

Will smoke washing the surface of hard contents including appliances and furniture be completed on-site. 

Is smoke washing necessary all sides of hard contents including appliances and furniture.

It is necessary to detach and remove appliances so they can be detergent washed cleaned inside and out including the back and sides of cabinetry.

Is it necessary to remove contents from cabinets and drawers allowing cabinets to be detergent cleaned.

Is it necessary to relocate (manipulate) contents and furniture to complete structural HEPA vacuuming and cleaning.

Is it necessary to inventory, box, and remove antiques, artwork, musical instruments and electronics for specialized cleaning.

Is it necessary to inventory, box, and remove all contents because they require cleaning at a controlled cleaning plant.

Is it necessary for contents to be removed from the house because the house requires repainting and restoration.

• Restorer’s Obligations:
• The restorer is to provide the homeowner with a detailed cost estimate for completing the above work. 
• Even though the insurance company may cover most if not all costs of the restorer, is there out-of-pocket expenses the homeowner is expected to pay.
• Recognizing the restorer’s agreement was signed between them and the homeowner, even though the scope of work was approved by an adjuster, the contractual obligation the restorer has is to the homeowner and not the insurance company. Therefore, the homeowner should insist that the restorer’s invoice and payments made by the insurance company should be delivered to them for line-by-line item review, where it is approved by the homeowner before the draft naming the restorer is signed.
• The goal in wildfire restoration is for the restorer to return the homeowner’s property back to its pre-wildfire condition.

At the time of a disaster, the homeowner should have the necessary insurance coverage to protect personal property. Depending on the extent of heat damage and smoke impaction, the homeowner may elect to file an insurance claim rather than clean and restore property by themself.

When landscape, structure, and contents are fire damaged, the homeowner’s insurance policy should provide for the repair or replacement of damaged materials. When the homeowner’s property is not fire-damage, but it is smoke impacted, the methods and procedures for restoring and deodorizing the home may not be clear, resulting in a dispute in coverage, services, and pricing. The adjuster is sometimes caught between the findings of different restorers and environmental professionals which delays processing the claim. This lag time sometimes results in the homeowner to take control of their property damage, hiring contractors, restorers, and environmental professionals to bring their home back to pre-wildfire conditions as quickly as possible.

Most homeowners are not knowledgeable about restoring their wildfire impacted home, or the implications of allowing their family to live in the smoke impacted house. For this and other reasons they may seek advice from websites offering tips including FEMA, EPA, CDC, state and local government agencies, and they seek the advice of their insurance agent, an independent adjuster, attorney, public adjuster or groups like Policyholders, that provides guidance on insurance-related questions.

The restoration of smoke that affects your home may not be the same for the neighbor next door that experienced the same amount of smoke impaction. This may be due to insurance coverage, how one insurance company manages claims differently from another company, the expertise of the adjuster and claims manager, the expertise of restorers and environmental professionals, the speed in approving claims and processing payments, and so on. 

When possible, consult with the adjuster and receive immediate payment for the undisputed amount, and when it is necessary to live out of the home during restoration, contact the if the adjuster and find out if they will provide you with an advance on living expenses. When you feel the restorer has your best interests in mind, even though they were recommended by the adjuster, consider hiring that restorer as long as they have answered your checklist questions, and you have a clear understanding what they are going to do and not able to do. 

In most fire insurance policies, the cleanup and removal of heat damage and smoke from a wildfire is a covered loss up to policy limits. However, in some states such as California has insurance for homeowners that cannot get other forms of property insurance. The California FAIR Plan is a private association controlled by insurance companies. The FAIR Plan provides limited coverage for the structure, but separate insurance may be required to cover additional damage, such as damage to contents, artwork, musical instruments and antiques. Also, if your insurance does not cover all of your home repair or rebuilding expenses, or you do not have insurance coverage, FEMA may be able to help. To assist FEMA inspectors, they request the homeowner to document damage with photos, especially when you began or have completed the cleanup process.